LOGICAL FALLACIES

APPEAL TO EMOTION

• The attempt to manipulate an emotional response instead of a valid argument.
• Appeals to fear, envy, hatred, pity, pride, etc.
• Sometimes an argument can appear to inspire an emotion.

APpEAL TO EMOTION

• Fallacy occurs when emotion is used instead of a rational reason for the person's position.
• Example: A Grocery Store Commercial may show a happy family all together around the table at a holiday dinner.

WHY USE THIS FALLACY?

• If a company uses the appeal to emotion fallacy, it might make the consumer want to go or purchase the product. If it makes the consumer want the product it could create higher profit for the company. When emotion is felt, a higher number of people are appealed to the product or place. Overall, this creates a positive effect for the company. This fallacy manipulates the consumer in to believing something by appealing to their emotions, to want the consumer to buy something or go to their place.

APPEAL TO AUTHORITY

• The idea that if a person of authority says so then it must be true.
• Do not provide valid arguments.
• Does not mean that claims of experts are not true in all cases.
• Sometimes used when someone struggles to find facts to back their arguments.

APPEAL TO AUTHORITY

• Example- If Donald Trump says the US will not go to war with North Korea, then it must be true because he is the President.

WHY USE THIS FALLACY?

• When conducting an argument, and when trying to convince the audience that the argument is correct using the appeal to authority fallacy is helpful. People look up to authorities. Hearing from them that the argument is true makes it more believable then hearing from the everyday person. Sometimes authorities do not have all the answers, and therefore the argument can still be incorrect. However, it is still a good tool to try and convince people that the argument is true because they are more likely to listen to an authoritative person.

SLIPPERY SLOPE

• The belief that if an idea happens that eventually something else will happen because of it and therefore the original idea should not happen.
• Shifts attention to extreme hypotheticals.
• No proof presented.
• Can leverage fear.
• If "A" happens then "Z" will definitely happen.

SLIPPERY SLOPE

• Avoids the true problem/argument at hand.
• Example: Rachel wakes up in the morning and realizes she is out of coffee, so she automatically thinks it is going to be a bad day, and she will fail her test.

WHY USE THIS FALLACY?

• Sometimes writers will use this fallacy to encourage the reader to do something or believe their argument. Using this fallacy in a positive or negative way helps influence people to believe that if they do something that there is a positive/negative direct effect. This can help manipulate the reader to believe the argument and what the writer of the argument is saying.

BLACK-OR -WHITE

• Two alternatives are presented as the only possibilities, when more possibilities exist. (Purposely limiting the available alternatives)
• Has the appearance of forming a logical argument.
• Does not allow for the many variables/effects to exist.
• Frames the argument misleadingly.

BLACK-OR-WHITE

• Also called- False Dilemma.
• Example: Mary is told she has to be on Rachel's Relay Team, or Sydney's Relay Team. (Neglects the option of Mary creating her own team, joining someone else's team or not being on a team at all.)

WHY USE THIS FALLACY?

• By using the black-or-white fallacy, it limits the choices someone could have. This gives the person conducting the argument a higher chance of being agreed with. The audience can be manipulated into thinking that they only have two options. This gives the false appearance of a strong, logical argument for the audience. However, for the person conducting the argument it can help them convince the audience that their argument is true. Therefore, making them more likely to believe what is being said.

SPECIAL PLEADING

• Making up an exception when the argument was shown to be false.
• Used to post-rationalize or justify an argument or idea.
• Used instead of accepting the fact that the argument or idea is wrong.
• Can be used in fear instead of owning up to a mistake.
• Does not provide logical reasoning.

SPECIAL PLEADING

• Example: Rachel says that students that do not complete their homework should be given a zero. Rachel did not complete her homework. Rachel says she should not be given a zero because her soccer game ran late and she did not have time to do her homework. But other students still should be given zeros.

WHY USE THIS FALLACY?

• This fallacy might be used when someone wants the audience to still believe in what they are saying even if it has been proven false. Even though there is no logical reasoning behind what they are saying, it allows them to manipulate their audience. By saying the argument is an exception or "special case" to what was proven false, it allows the person giving the argument to still try and persuade the audience that they are correct. Rather than changing their opinion or admitting that their argument is wrong the person may use this fallacy to still try and convince the audience that they are right.