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• Male heads of families= political leaders/ruling council
• Stateless societies
• Governed themselves through families and kinships
• Villages had ruling councils
• A group of villagers form a district

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• Some districts fell to powerful chiefs
• Districts turned to small kingdoms
• Kin based societies survived despite the fact that kingdoms gained power.
• Kingdom of Congo- one of more centralized kingdoms
• King or central administrators- appoint leaders, regulate currency

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