Britain, France & USA interfered in Russian Civil War 1918-21 to try to prevent a Communist win.

Lenin and Communists very suspicious of the West because of this.

Eastern Europe had been hostile to USSR between the wars. Hungary & Romania fought with Germany AGAINST USSR during WWII

Both German invasions had led to huge numbers of Russian casualties - Stalin wanted to protect against this happening ever again. Stalin said Soviet expansion was about security and defence

Soviet Union + Britain + USA formed the Grand Alliance in 1941 to fight together against Germany (who had just invaded the USSR)

Stalin - feared the other two wanted a weakened USSR so wouldn't act swiftly

Churchill - suspicious of Stalin and his motives, thought the USSR wanted more control in Europe

Soviets & Poland - USSR had failed to support an uprising, leaving it crushed by the Germans and therefore no resistance to the USSR when they took control.

Roosevelt; Churchill; Stalin

Stalin = successful

Roosevelt supported Stalin rather than Churchill

AGREEMENTS:
Britain & USA to invade France in May 1944

USSR was to join the war against Japan after Germany were defeated

A United Nations organisation was to be formed after the war

Parts of Eastern Poland were to become part of the Soviet Union and the borders redrawn to favour the USSR

Roosevelt; Churchill; Stalin

Stalin wanted Germany to pay huge reparations, the others were unconvinced

AGREEMENTS:

USSR would commit to war with Japan once Germany were defeated

Defeated Germany was to be divided into four zones; Berlin to be divided the same

Nazi war criminals were to be tried in an international court of justice

Countries liberated from Germany were to have free elections

All to join the United Nations Organisation to ensure peace

Eastern Europe would be Soviet 'sphere of influence'

Some disagreements: quantity of reparations; Polish border; Polish government

change of personnel

Soviet troops liberated countries in Eastern Europe but did not remove soldiers

Stalin set up Communist government in Poland ignoring previous agreements, claiming it was defensive

Stalin continued to expand the Red Army whilst the West embarked on demilitarisation

Roosevelt died (April) and was replaced by Truman who didn't trust Stalin

Truman tested an atomic bomb 16 July 1945

Churchill was defeated in a General Election replaced by Atlee

AGREEMENTS:

Germany & Berlin to be divided into 4 zones, Soviet zone to the East

Germany demilitarised

Democracy to be reintroduced to Germany

Germany to pay reparations mostly to the USSR

Nazi party banned and leading Nazis to go on trial at Nuremberg in 1946

Full participation in the United Nations Organisation

Poland's frontier to be moved west

Disagreements:
Germany & reparations

free elections

POLAND - June 1945 coalition government; January 1947 rigged election resulted in totally communist government

ROMANIA - coalition government early 1945; January 1945 - communists began protests to disrupt the government. March 1945 Soviet army intervened; communist dominated government introduced. November 1946 election resulted in 80% vote for communists. 1947, communist government abolished monarchy

HUNGARY - economic crisis; communist party gained control of police; arrested the Prime Minister in 1947. General Election August 1947, communists secured large share of vote, banned other parties. Rakosi became leader; called himself a 'follower of Stalin'

BULGARIA - late 1944 communist dominated government; November 1945 communist won rigged elections, banned all other parties

CZECHOSLOVAKIA - 1947 largest party in coalition; 1948 supported by USSR used army to seize control; rigged elections won communist victory, all other parties banned

YUGOSLAVIA - communist resistance fought against German invasion during WWII. BUT leader - TITO didn't want to take orders from Stalin. Yugoslavia expelled from Cominform, Tito accepted aid from West...

Britain and USA concerned by actions of the USSR - felt that free elections would still have resulted in governments friendly to USSR

Stalin thought only Soviet controlled communist governments would be supportive

Truman saw this as spreading communism - fears were confirmed

Churchill 'Iron Curtain' speech - March 1946: made a speech in the USA stating that an 'iron curtain' had descended across Europe dividing communist east from capitalist west. He suggested an alliance between Britain and USA to prevent further expansion. Stalin saw speech as provocative.

George Kennan = DEPUTY CHIEF OF MISSION @ US Embassy in Moscow. Saw USSR as aggressive and suspicious, recommended firm action to combat Soviet expansion - message became known as the 'Long Telegram' - influenced Truman to develop policy of containment

September 1946, USSR retaliated with the 'Novikov Telegram' sent to Stalin by Soviet Ambassador to the USA. Claimed that the USA was seeking world dominance via building their peacetime military.

The USA chose to pursue a policy of CONTAINMENT, designed to prevent the further spread of Communism. It was also a response to events in Greece. The USA was using its economic power and possession of an atomic bomb to try to put pressure on the USSR.

Britain had been financially supporting the Royalist cause in Greece against the Communists since 1944 (they also had 40,000 troops in Greece). Turkey was also threatened by Communist rebels. Britain could no longer afford this - the USA stepped in.

Truman asserted in a speech in March 1947 that the world was divided into two armed groups - capitalist = free and communist = not free. The USA would do all it could to protect the world from Communism

CONSEQUENCES:

1. Greek government defeated the Communists

2. Rivalry between USA and USSR increased

3. USA committed to containment and involvement in Europe

4. USA invested economic aid into Europe to create new markets

5. the USSR set up COMINFORM to link communist parties in common action

Supported the Truman Doctrine with economic aid to Europe.

Truman believed communism would spread where there were economic issues, unemployment and poverty.

Economic recovery would ensure that Communism would not spread.

Offered cash, machinery, food and technological assistance in return for buying from US businesses and allowing US investment in companies.

UK and France were largest recipients of Marshall Plan Aid.

CONSEQUENCES:

1. countries invited to meet and discuss how to use the aid. 16 countries formed the OEEC

2. $17 billion had been spent by 1953

3. divisions between East and West grew deeper - Stalin withdrew the USSR from participating due to distrust and fear of exposure

4. Stalin accused the USA of exploiting the plan for its own interests

5. propaganda increased as the two sides couldn't afford to be literally at war

Communist Information Bureau

Soviet response to the Truman Doctrine

aimed to ensure that Eastern European countries followed Soviet aims with foreign policy

introduced Soviet economic policies

used the organisation to purge non-conforming members e.g. Tito and Yugoslavia, 1948

Council for Mutual Assistance

Response to Marshall Plan

Offered financial support to Easter Europe in order to:

control economies in those states

allow access to resources for the USSR

encouraged specialisation - East Germany = heavy industry; Hungary = food and raw materials

Long-term causes: since the division of Germany and Berlin in 1945 there had been different approaches to Germany.

The West wanted rapid recovery and free elections; the USSR wanted to defend itself from future attack, keep Germany weak and ensure sympathetic government.

Short-term causes: economic recovery was pushed forward in the Western sectors. January 1947 the US and British zones merged into one economic unit known as Bizonia

March: Soviet representatives walked out of the Allied Control Commission set up to run Hungary and now running Germany

April: Allied zones included in Marshall Plan; Soviet troops began to hold up and search road/rail traffic entering West Berlin

June: western powers announced West German State and new currency; USSR introduced a different currency to the East

24 June: Stalin accused the west of interfering in the east and cut off all access to West Berlin attempting to starve out the Allies and force them to withdraw from Berlin

The Allies responded by airlifting supplies into Berlin as the only possible access route.

Airlift began on 28 June 1948, lasted 10 months

British codename 'Operation Plainfare'

Planes flew day and night, landing at 90 second intervals.

Soviets placed weather balloons in difficult places and also sent Soviet planes to fly across the air corridors.

Truman sent B-52 bombers (which could carry atomic bombs) to Britain.

September 1948: 4,600 tons a day dropped off.

Soviets tried to persuade people to move from West to East

16-17 April 1949: peak day; 1,398 flights landed 13,000 tons of supplies in 24 hours.

Despite these efforts many left West Berlin due to shortages. However, 12 May 1949 Stalin called off the blockade.

CONSEQUENCES:

1. confirmed the divisions of Germany and Berlin

2. increased East/West rivalry

3. led to creation of NATO

4. by the end of May 1949 the Allies had announced Federal Republic of Germany unifying the US, British and French controlled zones.

5. October 1949 - Stalin announced German Democratic Republic

Truman = victory

Stalin = defeat but used propaganda to persuade the Soviet people otherwise

North Atlantic Treaty Organisation

defensive alliance to prevent Soviet expansion


viewed as aggressive by Stalin

NATO allowed West Germany to join May 1955 and to remilitarise

CONSEQUENCES:

1. USA was committed to defence in Western Europe

2. Stalin viewed it as aggressive - aimed at the USSR

3. intensified the arms race and development of increasingly powerful weapons

4. Soviet Union set up the Warsaw Pact 1955

5. USA set up missile bases in Western Europe

military alliance of 8 nations headed by the USSR

Soviet Union; Albania; Poland; Romania; Hungary; East Germany; Czechoslovakia; Bulgaria

Intensified the arms race; increased rivalry

1945 - USA atomic bomb

1949 - USSR atomic bomb

1949 - USA ordered H-Bomb

1953 - USA then USSR tested H-Bombs

1 March 1954 - USA tested largest ever Hydrogen Bomb

Both sides felt threatened and responded by building alliances and more bombs - creating a cycle of fear

1957 - USSR launch Sputnik which could orbit the earth in 90 minutes, USA saw this as a threat

1957-9 USA increased its spending on missiles by 20% President Eisenhower founded NASA. Increased B-52 bombers; increased missile bases in Europe including West Germany; equipped submarines with nuclear weapons

Stalin died 1953 - replaced by Malenkov.

Rakosi - leader of Hungary (remember him?) used terror to maintain control; killed approx 2,000 people in the purges and imprisoned 200,000 political opponents. Secret police widely used. Religious teaching removed from schools.

Economy controlled by USSR through COMECON. Economy became weak as difficult to develop the economy under those circumstances, Rakosi became unpopular.

Malenkov did not favour Rakosi and replaced him with Nagy.

Rakosi regained power April 1955

February 1956 Krushchev had replaced Malenkov; made 'secret speech' denouncing Stalin's policies and asserting a belief in peaceful co-existence

July 1956 - Rakosi forced out

23 October 1956 - students demonstrate in Budapest; demanding free elections, free press, free speech and removal of Soviet troops

Krushchev sent tanks and troops to restore peace, 25 October the tanks fired on demonstrators killing 12

Nagy reinstated - talks with USSR to remove troops; USA appeared to offer support. Nagy freed political prisoners and published proposed reforms, including withdrawing from the Warsaw Pact and seeking support from the UN to resolve disputes with USSR.

Krushchev under pressure from China sentinel 200,000 troops and 6,000 tanks.

Rebels fought as long as they could using guerrilla tactics. 10 November ceasefire agreed. Kadar = new leader. Promised Nagy safe passage but broke promise; Nagy arrested, taken to Romania and hanged in 1958.

CONSEQUENCES:

1. Soviet control reasserted

2. 200,000 Hungarians fled

3. Britain and USA able to do very little at such a distance

4. Worldwide sympathy for the Hungarian people

5. Soviet Union maintained empire and extended a warning to other satellite states

6. The West perceived Krushchev's messages of peace as a lie

Krushchev tried to persuade the Allies to leave Berlin as it was symbol of capitalism within Communist Eastern Europe

1949-61 approx 4 million East Germans fled to the West

1958 - Krushchev: Berlin Ultimatum - the Allies should leave Berlin and it should be a neutral city. Eisenhower appeared prepared to negotiate. Krushchev visited USA in 1959. Summit meeting agreed for 1960

1960 - Paris Summit organised for 14 May; 5 May Soviet Union announced it had shot down a US plane accused of spying. Pilot captured and put on trial. Eisenhower stopped flights but refused to apologise

January 1961 numbers increased dramatically including professionals and skilled craftsmen = economic and labour drain

June 1961 - Vienna Summit: Krushchev & Kennedy. Krushchev again demanded the Allies leave Berlin; Kennedy refused and increased defence spending. Soviets responded by increasing defence budget by 30%.

Tensions increased!

13 August Krushchev closed the border East/West Berlin - East Berlin was encircled in wire, chain and minefields. Construction began on a wall. 3.6m high, 1.2m wide.

CONSEQUENCES:

1. stand-off between USA and USSR; USA stationed troops and tanks on the Western side, USSR therefore placed tanks on the Eastern side. Kennedy worked behind the scenes to prevent conflict, stand-off ended

2. Flow of refugees stopped. Some people still tried to defect, many lost their lives

3. German people let down by USSR breaking promises and by USA not going to war on their behalf

4. Families split apart

5. Krushchev felt he had beaten Kennedy

6. Kennedy visited West Germany and West Berlin in 1963 - huge visible support for him; made a speech close to the wall and listened to by East Berliners

very close to mainland USA

USA had strong economic interests there and supported Batista the dictator leader

Cuban Revolution 1959 put socialist Castro in power who took control of American property in Cuba. USA shut down imports from Cuba and wouldn't recognise Castro's government - so he turned to USSR for support. They bought sugar and sent weapons. Krushchev aimed to challenge Kennedy again.

April 1961 - Bay of Pigs invasion - USA supported Cuban exiles attempting to overthrow Castro: FAILED

Krushchev continued to send military supplies to Cuba

14 October 1962 - US spy planes photographed Sovietintermediate range missile bases being constructed on Cuba

Leadership troubles initiated by a declining economy which was impacted by Soviet economic policies.

Novotny replaced by Dubcek who tried to introduce reforms = 'Prague Spring'

Reform opened up demands for further change which suggested that the Soviets were losing influence = Brezhnev and other communist leaders were concerned.

Soviet army invaded (with support from Bulgaria; East Germany; Hungary & Poland) in order to re-establish firm Soviet Communist control. No armed resistance from Czeckoslovakian army.

Propaganda opportunity in USSR to show threat to Soviet Union.

Brezhnev Doctrine - Soviet Union had the right to invade any country in Eastern Europe where actions appeared to threaten the security of the Soviet Union.

Consequences:
- Protests continued in Czechoslovakia
- Soviet/USA relations limited impact
- Western Europe. communist parties separated from USSR
- Other communist countries e.g. Romania moved away from Soviet influence.
Overall decline in Soviet influence as they had invaded an ally

Cuban missile crisis helped to improve relations between East and West despite continuing tension in the Middle East and Vietnam. Brezhnev even helped to broker peace in Vietnam in 1973.

This was a period of time where the two sides tried to accept their differences in ideology and work more effectively together.

Attempt to limit the arms race. Three years of talks.

+ Limited the number of missiles
+ 5 year freeze on total no. of Intercontinental Ballistic Missiles (ICBMs)

- no limit to number of strategic bombers
- each side could 'watch' the other using satellites to keep a check on no. of missiles

Positives:
Yom Kippur War
Space exploration
Helsinki - security; cooperation; human rights agreements
Negatives:
weaponry continued to increase

Begun in 1974 signed in 1979

Agreed limits to weapons, both developing and deployment. Would last until 1985.

Congress refused to ratify the treaty as it didn't believe that limits could be checked.

Soviets invaded Afghanistan and détente was over.

USA - didn't want to lose access to oil or see increased Soviet influence

Soviets - didn't want to see US influence grow at the borders of the USSR

PDPA - communists - seized power in April 1978

Communist-style reform programme, targeted Muslim elite

Leadership uncertain, power seized by Deputy PM Sept 1979, shot and replaced by Kamal in Dec '79 (Kamal had been in exile in Moscow)

Meanwhile the MUJAHIDEEN Muslim guerrilla movement aimed to regain power

USSR supported the PDPA and provided troops to ensure retention of power

USA supported the MUJAHIDEEN