The Elements of Argument

We will be studying the Toulmin model of debate which was created by Stephen Toulmin, a British philosopher.

Toulmin opposed the idea of absolutism, which is the theory that there are universal and unanimous truths in life. (Example)

The Toulmin model of argument contains three major concepts:The Claim, the Support and the Warrant

Claims, aka propositions, answer the question "What are you trying to prove?" A claim may be identified as a thesis in a essay or may be undeclared. There are three principal claims.

KINDS OF CLAIMS

• Claims of fact
• Claims of value
• Claims of policy

Claims of fact assert that a condition existed,exists or will exist and are based on facts or data that are, or can be verified.

CLAIMS OF FACT

• For many facts there is no need for argument
• Some facts are easy to validate as others are more difficult
• Verification is the basis of claims of fact
• A claim of fact is not necessarily a true statement
• Do not confuse a claim of fact with a factual claim

EXAMPLES

• Class begins at Freire Charter School at 8:02a.m.
• Most Freire students are from Philadelphia
• The only life in the universe exists on planet earth

TRUE OR FALSE: IS THE FOLLOWING STATEMENT A CLAIM OF FACT?

• The Philadelphia Eagles will win the super bowl
• Mr. Kai is that guy
• The class of 2017 is the greatest of all time
• All of you were born in the mid 90's

CLAIMS OF VALUE

Claims of value attempt to prove that some things are more or less desirable than others. They express approval or disapproval of standards of taste and morality. Claims of value most often emerge in arguments of good or bad, beautiful or ugly.

CLAIM OF VALUE EXAMPLES

• Grits taste better with honey and nutmeg
• The Dallas Cowboys are the best team in the league
• Killing is wrong
• Rock music sucks
• Van Gogh is a great artist

ARE THESE CLAIMS OF VALUE?

• This book is huge
• Those are some good kids
• Paulo Freire was a Brazilian philosopher
• Paulo Freire school is founded on his principals
• They should shut Freire Charter down

CLAIMS OF POLICY

Claims of policy assert that specific policies should be instituted as a solution to problems. The expressions should, must or "ought to"usually appear in the statement. Claims of policy call for analysis of both fact and value.

EXAMPLES:CLAIMS OF POLICY

• They should shut Freire charter school down
• Freshmen should be allowed out of their green shirts
• The 5th amendment should be amended

ARE THESE CLAIMS OF POLICY?

• Kids should have breakfast everyday
• Some people need deodorant
• Cafeteria lunch must change
• Septa ought to allow student passes to swipe all day and night

THE THREE MAJOR CONCEPTS OF THE TOULMIN MODEL

• Claims (previewed)
• Support
• Warrant

Support- the materials and or resources the arguer uses to convince their audience.

SUFFICIENT AND APPROPRIATE DATA

• The amount and kind of data will differ from claim to claim
• The more complex or controversial the topic, the more data that will be required
• Always look for multiple sources that validate your claim
• Search and use credible sites and sources
• Incredible sources weaken the strength of your argument

RELIABLE SOURCES

• A single eye witness is not infallibly credible
• Consider the biases of witnesses, reporters, news stations,authors, announcers, etc.
• Validate experts with other experts
• Does the source come from a reputable university, specialist or credible publisher?
• Select and critique your sources based on the needs and warrants of your argument

THE WARRANT

The warrant is the underlying assumption of any claim. It is a belief or principle that is taken for granted. The warrant may be stated or unstated. Without agreeing or acknowledging it, there is no argument. The warrant assures that the relationship between the claim and support are sound.

ASSESSING, STRENGTHENING AND ATTACKING CLAIMS

INFERENCE VS FACT

Inference- An interpretation.The process of coming to a conclusion that is probable based on known knowledge. A statement or idea about the unknown based on the known.

Inference- An interpretation.The process of coming to a conclusion that is probable based on known knowledge. A statement or idea about the unknown based on the known.

"Children playing extremely violent/graphic video games has caused a steady increase in violent crimes by adolescents."